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Of course, they must then only use functions that are defined by all platforms (e.g., unlink and opendir), and leave all pathname manipulation to os.path (e.g., split and join). 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Works like mkdir, except that any intermediate path segment (not just the rightmost) will be created if it does not exist. If the target directory already exists, raise an OSError if exist_ok is False. Otherwise no exception is raised. This is recursive. ASCIIN) r splitexistsmakedirsFileExistsErrorr isinstancebytesr=OSErrorisdir)r modeexist_okheadtailcdirrrrrjs$    rjc Cst|tj|\}}|s=tj|\}}nxI|r|ryt|Wntk roPYnXtj|\}}q@WdS)aremovedirs(name) Super-rmdir; remove a leaf directory and all empty intermediate ones. Works like rmdir except that, if the leaf directory is successfully removed, directories corresponding to rightmost path segments will be pruned away until either the whole path is consumed or an error occurs. Errors during this latter phase are ignored -- they generally mean that a directory was not empty. N)rLr rhrn)r rrrsrrr removedirss  ruc Cstj|\}}|r>|r>tj| r>t|nt||tj|\}}|r|ryt|Wqtk rYqXndS)a<renames(old, new) Super-rename; create directories as necessary and delete any left empty. Works like rename, except creation of any intermediate directories needed to make the new pathname good is attempted first. After the rename, directories corresponding to rightmost path segments of the old name will be pruned until either the whole path is consumed or a nonempty directory is found. Note: this function can fail with the new directory structure made if you lack permissions needed to unlink the leaf directory or file. N)r rhrirjrGrurn)oldnewrrrsrrrrenames s    rxTc csBtjtjtj}}}yt|}WnBtk rq}z"|dk r[||ndSWYdd}~XnXgg} } x@|D]8} |||| r| j| q| j| qW|r|| | fVnxK| D]C} ||| } |s||  rt| |||DdHqqW|s>|| | fVndS)a Directory tree generator. For each directory in the directory tree rooted at top (including top itself, but excluding '.' and '..'), yields a 3-tuple dirpath, dirnames, filenames dirpath is a string, the path to the directory. dirnames is a list of the names of the subdirectories in dirpath (excluding '.' and '..'). filenames is a list of the names of the non-directory files in dirpath. Note that the names in the lists are just names, with no path components. To get a full path (which begins with top) to a file or directory in dirpath, do os.path.join(dirpath, name). If optional arg 'topdown' is true or not specified, the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories (directories are generated top down). If topdown is false, the triple for a directory is generated after the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are generated bottom up). When topdown is true, the caller can modify the dirnames list in-place (e.g., via del or slice assignment), and walk will only recurse into the subdirectories whose names remain in dirnames; this can be used to prune the search, or to impose a specific order of visiting. Modifying dirnames when topdown is false is ineffective, since the directories in dirnames have already been generated by the time dirnames itself is generated. No matter the value of topdown, the list of subdirectories is retrieved before the tuples for the directory and its subdirectories are generated. By default errors from the os.listdir() call are ignored. If optional arg 'onerror' is specified, it should be a function; it will be called with one argument, an OSError instance. It can report the error to continue with the walk, or raise the exception to abort the walk. Note that the filename is available as the filename attribute of the exception object. By default, os.walk does not follow symbolic links to subdirectories on systems that support them. In order to get this functionality, set the optional argument 'followlinks' to true. Caution: if you pass a relative pathname for top, don't change the current working directory between resumptions of walk. walk never changes the current directory, and assumes that the client doesn't either. Example: import os from os.path import join, getsize for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/email'): print(root, "consumes", end="") print(sum([getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files]), end="") print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files") if 'CVS' in dirs: dirs.remove('CVS') # don't visit CVS directories N)r islinkjoinrorSrnappendwalk) toptopdownonerror followlinksryrzronameserrdirsnondirsr new_pathrrrr|&s(;     r|.follow_symlinksdir_fdc cst|ddd|}t|td|}zR|s`tj|jr~tj|t|r~t|||||DdHnWdt |XdS)aDirectory tree generator. This behaves exactly like walk(), except that it yields a 4-tuple dirpath, dirnames, filenames, dirfd `dirpath`, `dirnames` and `filenames` are identical to walk() output, and `dirfd` is a file descriptor referring to the directory `dirpath`. The advantage of fwalk() over walk() is that it's safe against symlink races (when follow_symlinks is False). If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor open to a directory, and top should be relative; top will then be relative to that directory. (dir_fd is always supported for fwalk.) Caution: Since fwalk() yields file descriptors, those are only valid until the next iteration step, so you should dup() them if you want to keep them for a longer period. Example: import os for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/email'): print(root, "consumes", end="") print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]), end="") print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files") if 'CVS' in dirs: dirs.remove('CVS') # don't visit CVS directories rFrN) r7rCO_RDONLYstS_ISDIRst_moder samestat_fwalkclose)r}r~rrrorig_sttopfdrrrfwalks#"rc cst|}gg}}x|D]}y?tjt|d|jrW|j|n |j|Wq tk ry8tjt|d|ddjr|j|nWntk rw YnXYq Xq W|r||||fVnx|D]}y1t|d|d|} t|t d|} WnBt k rj} z"|dk rT|| ndSWYdd} ~ XnXzR|st j | t| rt j ||} t| | |||DdHnWdt| XqW|s||||fVndS)NrrF)rSrrr7rr{FileNotFoundErrorS_ISLNKrCrrnr rrzrr) rtoppathr~rrrrrr rdirfdrdirpathrrrrs<    $    "rcGst||dS)zpexecl(file, *args) Execute the executable file with argument list args, replacing the current process. 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The optional second argument can specify an alternate default. key, default and the result are str.)rr)rdefaultrrrgetenvsrrcCs/t|ts+tdt|jn|S)Nzbytes expected, not %s)rlrmrrr)rrrr _check_bytessrcCstj||S)zGet an environment variable, return None if it doesn't exist. The optional second argument can specify an alternate default. key, default and the result are bytes.)environbr)rrrrrgetenvbsrrcs[tjdkr!dndfdd}fdd}||fS)NmbcsstrictrcsOt|tr|St|tr2|jStdt|jdS)z Encode filename to the filesystem encoding with 'surrogateescape' error handler, return bytes unchanged. On Windows, use 'strict' error handler if the file system encoding is 'mbcs' (which is the default encoding). zexpect bytes or str, not %sN)rlrmr-rrrr)filename)rerrorsrrrs z_fscodec..fsencodecsOt|tr|St|tr2|jStdt|jdS)z Decode filename from the filesystem encoding with 'surrogateescape' error handler, return str unchanged. 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If mode == P_WAIT return the process's exit code if it exits normally; otherwise return -SIG, where SIG is the signal that killed it. )rrU)rprrrrrrspawnveHsrcCst|||dtS)a8spawnvp(mode, file, args) -> integer Execute file (which is looked for along $PATH) with arguments from args in a subprocess. If mode == P_NOWAIT return the pid of the process. If mode == P_WAIT return the process's exit code if it exits normally; otherwise return -SIG, where SIG is the signal that killed it. N)rr)rprrrrrspawnvpTsr cCst||||tS)a\spawnvpe(mode, file, args, env) -> integer Execute file (which is looked for along $PATH) with arguments from args in a subprocess with the supplied environment. If mode == P_NOWAIT return the pid of the process. If mode == P_WAIT return the process's exit code if it exits normally; otherwise return -SIG, where SIG is the signal that killed it. )rr)rprrrrrrspawnvpe^sr cGst|||S)aspawnl(mode, file, *args) -> integer Execute file with arguments from args in a subprocess. If mode == P_NOWAIT return the pid of the process. If mode == P_WAIT return the process's exit code if it exits normally; otherwise return -SIG, where SIG is the signal that killed it. )r)rprrrrrspawnlpsr cGs'|d}t|||dd|S)a:spawnle(mode, file, *args, env) -> integer Execute file with arguments from args in a subprocess with the supplied environment. If mode == P_NOWAIT return the pid of the process. If mode == P_WAIT return the process's exit code if it exits normally; otherwise return -SIG, where SIG is the signal that killed it. reNrr)r)rprrrrrrspawnleys r cGst|||S)aWspawnlp(mode, file, *args) -> integer Execute file (which is looked for along $PATH) with arguments from args in a subprocess with the supplied environment. If mode == P_NOWAIT return the pid of the process. 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